It also produces extreme discomfort to people, therefore, please bare this in mind when building this device. Some people cannot tolerate this ultrasonic sound and therefore, this device may sometimes be used to discourage attack.

Learn the techniques of constructing an electronic animal control device.

Remote sensors provide a means to economically conduct continuous surveillance of vast areas, contributing key information to the intelligence collection effort.

These operations decrease the number of personnel required for reconnaissance and surveillance operations and reduce the risk associated with these operations. A remote sensor system, consisting of individual sensors, communications relays, and monitoring devices, provides the capability to conduct remote sensor operations. Sensors, relays, and monitoring devices are employed in an integrated network, providing general surveillance, early warning, or target acquisition over selected areas of the battlefield.

Key considerations in employing remote sensors are the nature of the target, characteristics of the area or operations, time and resources available for emplacing the sensor network, and the location and connectivity of the sensor monitoring sites.

The primary target audience of this publication is intelligence personnel responsible for the planning and execution of sensor operations. Personnel who provide support to remote sensor operations or who utilize the reporting from these operations should also read this publication.

This handbook contains detailed doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures for the conduct of remote sensor operations in support of the Marine Air–Ground Task Force (MAGTF).

It has a standard effective range of approximately 10 meters.

It uses a high frequency oscillator to produce ultrasonic electrical waves that are amplified by transistors and converted to sound waves by a high frequency responsive speaker powered by only a 9 Volt battery.

The reason it works is very simple. The ultrasonic waves travel through the ear canal and pass through a region very close to the human equilibrium. The waves are such a high frequency that they cause resonance in the ear canal and it begins to severely vibrate the equilibrium, causing the sediment–filled liquid to slosh around a bit.

It is this that causes a feeling of disorientation and quickly makes the victim(s) feel the sudden urge to vomit. It also causes dizziness, temporary vision problems, and possible mental disorders after prolonged exposure.

Learn more about how the Sonic Nausea Generator works.

Electronic warfare has three main components: electronic support, electronic attack, and electronic protection.

This fully illustrated publication contains EW doctrine, appropriate to corps, division, independent brigade group and brigade, covering all operations of war in a high intensity conflict.

This military issue Tactical Electronic Warfare guide will; provide guidance for the employment of EW elements in land operations; cover the EW process and the staff responsibilities for the employment of EW elements offensively; cover the threat to our electronic systems and the staff responsibilities for the employment of EW elements defensively; teach organizations and tactics.

The contents of this handbook are as follows:

Chapter 1 – Introduction

Section 1 – General

• Background
• Scope
• Definitions

Section 2 – The Threat

• Strategic
• Tactical
• Electronic Warfare Target

Section 3 – The Role Of Electronic Warfare

• General
• Exploitation
• Disruption
• Protection

Section 4 – The Divisions Of Electronic Warfare

• General
• Electronic Support Measure
• Electronic Countermeasures
• Electronic Counter–Countermeasures

Chapter 2 – Tactical Electronic Warfare Organizations

Section 1 – General

• Concept Of Electronic Warfare Support
• Role Of Electronic Warfare Organizations
• Capability Requirements
• Organizational Factors

Section 2 – Corps Electronic Warfare Regiment

• Tasks
• Organization
• Capabilities

Section 3 – Division Electronic Warfare Squadron

• General
• Armoured Division Electronic Warfare Squadron
• Mechanized Infantry Division Electronic Warfare Squadron

Section 4 – Independent Brigade Group Electronic Warfare Troop

• General
• Organization And Capabilities

Section 5 – Command And Control

• General
• Technical Versus Operational Control
• Components
• Typical Deployment
• Combat Service Support

Chapter 3 – Offensive Electronic Warfare

Section 1 – General

• Responsibility
• Electronic Warfare Process

Section 2 – Electronic Support Measures

• General
• Search
• Intercept
• Direction–Finding
• Analysis

Section 3 – Electronic Countermeasures

• General
• Jamming
• Deception
• Non–Communication Electronic Countermeasures

Chapter 4 – Defensive Electronic Warfare

Section 1 – General

• Responsibility
• Aim
• Sub–Divisions Of Electronic Counter–Countermeasures

Section 2 – Technical

• General
• Cryptographic Techniques
• Antenna Techniques
• Transmission Techniques
• Non–Communication Techniques

Section 3 – Procedural

• General
• Avoid Detection
• Avoid Identification
• Maintain Security
• Defeat Deception
• Defeat Jamming
• Reporting

Section 4 – Tactical

• General
• Emission Control
• Movement And Siting
• Communication Planning
• Defence By Attack

Section 5 – Miscellaneous

• Signal Security
• Training
• Defensive Electronic Warfare Aide–Memoire

Chapter 5 – Electronic Warfare Tactics

Section 1 – Deployment Of Electronic Warfare Resources

• General 5–1–1
• Guidelines For Electronic Countermeasures
• Non–Communication Applications
• Guidelines For Electronic Counter–Countermeasures

Section 2 – Offensive Operations

• General
• Advance To Contact
• Attack
• Pursuit

Section 3 – Defensive Operations

• General
• Defence
• Delay
• Withdrawal

Section 4 – Special Operations

• Airmobile Operations
• Airborne Operations
• Amphibious Operations
• Crossing And Breaching Operations

Section 5 – Environmental Considerations

• Mountains
• Arctic And Cold Weather
• Deserts
• Jungles
• Nuclear, Biological And Chemical
• Miscellaneous

Chapter 6 – Staff Responsibilities For Electronic Warfare Planning

Section 1 – General

• Principles Of Employment
• Concept Of Electronic Warfare Planning

Section 2 – Electronic Warfare Planning Cycle

• General
• Responsibilities

Section 3 – Staff Relationships

• General
• G2 And The Intelligence Coordination And Analysis Centre
• Signals
• Miscellaneous

Section 4 – Emission Control Planning

• General
• Factors
• Policy

Section 5 – Electronic Countermeasures Planning

• General
• Jamming
• Deception

Section 6 – Staff Duties

• Electronic Warfare Estimate Of The Situation
• Electronic Warfare Parts Of An Operation Order
• Restricted Frequency Lists
• Electronic Warfare Symbols

Chapter 7 – Electronic Warfare Training

Section 1 – General

• Introduction
• Requirements

Section 2 – Individual Training

• Operators And Users
• Commanders And Staff
• Signal And Electronic Warfare Specialists

Section 3 – Unit Training

• General
• Monitoring
• Jamming And Deception

Section 4 – Formation Training

• General
• Electronic Warfare In Exercises

Annex

• Annex – Vocabulary Of Electronic Warfare Definitions
• Annex – Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming And Interference (Miji)
• Report (Extraction Of Main Items From Stanag 6004)
• Annex – Defensive Electronic Warfare Aide Memoire
• Annex – Example Of An Electronic Warfare Annex
• Annex – Signal Security Monitoring Procedures

Address the deployment and employment of electronic attack (EA) assets at division and brigade; discuss concepts and principles unique to EA; describe how to integrate EA into the targeting effort; address specific tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) when applicable; this manual is a guide for Army commanders, staffs, and operators who plan and/or execute EA. It applies equally to the Active Component (AC), US Army Reserve (USAR), and Army National Guard (ARNG).

Division targeting teams and electronic warfare (EW) personnel work together to ensure that EW is integrated into targeting, is thoroughly planned, and is vigorously executed. The use of standard EW targets without thorough analysis and planning significantly limits the potential of EW as a true combat multiplier. Inadequate planning leads to the uncoordinated use of EW and limits the effects of both EW and fire support (FS) as a whole. On the other hand, if EW is adequately staffed, trained, integrated into targeting, planned, and executed, it helps the commander reach his targeting objectives by dominating the electromagnetic environment (EME).

EW can attack the threat when it is most vulnerable through a quick, accurate, timely, and responsive means that can also provide a fast assessment of the operation. Additionally, EW is important because it is a responsive tool to perform suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD); it is also one of the integrated tools used to conduct information operations (IO). However, EW is effective only when the commander decides there is more value in conducting EA (for a specific high–payoff target [HPT] at a specific point) than performing additional collection in order to produce more intelligence.

Covered in this complete guide:

Chapter 1 OPERATIONS AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE

• The Potential.
• Methodology
• The Environment
• Electronic Warfare .
• Tactical Electronic Attack.
• Current and Future Threat Electronic Warfare Capabilities

Chapter 2 ELECTRONIC ATTACK IN INFORMATION OPERATIONS.

• Information Operations
• Information Superiority.

Chapter 3 ELECTRONIC ATTACK IN TARGETING: KEY PERSONNEL, ORGANIZATIONS, AND COORDINATION

• Electronic Attack in The Targeting Methodology
• Key Electronic Attack Personnel and Organizations
• Key Electronic Attack Coordination

Chapter 4 DECIDE

• Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
• Target Development
• Requirements Management
• Mission Management
• Asset Management

Chapter 5 DETECT

• Electronic Support Data
• Deploy Electronic Support and Electronic Attack Assets
• Collect Electronic Support Data
• Collection for Database Development
• Search Techniques
• Cross Cue
• Process Signals Intelligence Data
• Situation Development
• Electronic Attack Effectiveness

Chapter 6 DELIVER

• Tactical Decisions
• Technical Decisions
• Conduct Electronic Attack
• Jumping EA Assets After EA Missions
• Report Electronic Attack Results
• Summarize Status of Electronic Attack Results

Chapter 7 ASSESS

• Operator Evaluation
• Unit Combat Assessment
• Reattack Recommendation

Appendix A THE ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

• Military Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Military Operations and Electromagnetic Environment
• Principal Electronic Warfare Activities

Appendix B SIGNAL–TO–NOISE RATIO REFERENCE

• Ratio Formula
• Future Trends

Appendix C ELECTRONIC DECEPTION

• Types of Electronic Deception
• Electronic Deception Planning
• Electronic Deception Techniques

Appendix D MESSAGE FORMATS

Appendix E EXAMPLE FORMATS AND TARGET REPORT

• General
• High–Payoff Target List
• Target Selection Standards
• Attack Guidance Matrix
• Sensor or Attack Matrix
• Optional High–Payoff Target List and Attack Guidance Matrix
• Target Sheets
• Electronic Warfare Annex

Appendix F DIRECT SUPPORT TO THE BRIGADE

• Task Organization
• Organization and Operations

Appendix G MILITARY OPERATIONS ON URBANIZED TERRAIN

Appendix H BRIGADE COMBAT TEAM

• Organization
• Operations

For example, the external environment dramatically affects the performance of all sensor systems.

Similarly, the ability to perform critical functions such as detection or tracking, can be related to certain universal sensor characteristics in an unambiguous fashion. Among these common attributes are the characteristics of observable signals, the effects of propagation through the environment, and the functions desired to be performed.

Other than their use as examples, specific sensor technologies are not discussed until Part II. Specifically, this section describes a set of tools that can be used by the analyst to predict and compare the performance of any kinds of sensor systems. Use of these tools permits apples to apples trade studies to be made between sensors with little or no physical similarity.

In addition, it will become apparent that even after a detailed discussion of radar or sonar components, integration, and operation, the student will be unable to predict the performance of any radar or sonar until after he has learned how to obtain and incorporate the results of detection theory, estimation theory, and propagation theory, among others.

This material is presented first in the hopes of instilling a recognition that sensors can be studied as a unified topic.

Covered in this complete sensor system guide:

CHAPTER 1. SIGNATURES, OBSERVABLES, & PROPAGATORS 3

• Sensors, Transducers, and Detectors 3
• Observables 4
• Signatures and Propagators 5
• References 11
• Problems 12

CHAPTER 2. PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. I.
– FUNDAMENTAL EFFECTS 13

• What is Electromagnetic Radiation 13
• Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation in Bulk Materials 20
• Reflection and Refraction 23
• Interference 28
• Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction 30
• Mie Scattering 35
• References 37
• Problems 38

CHAPTER 3. PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. II.
– WEATHER EFFECTS 39

• Introduction 39
• Structure of the Atmosphere 45
• Molecular Absorption 56
• Aerosol Scattering 67
• Hydrometeors – Fogs and Clouds 71
• Hydrometeors – Precipitation 85
• Statistics of Weather Effects 89
• References 100
• Problems 104

CHAPTER 4. PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. III.
– REFRACTIVE EFFECTS 107

• Horizon Extension 107
• Ducting and Mirages 114
• Atmospheric Turbulence 128
• Ionospheric Effects 148
• References 154
• Problems 156

CHAPTER 5. PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION IV.
– OTHER ATMOSPHERIC AND UNDERWATER EFFECTS 159

• Contrast Transmission 159
• Smoke, Dust, and Battlefield Obscurants 162
• Pasquill Stability and Atmospheric Diffusion 168
• Transmission Through Stratified Media 176
• Multipath 179
• Terrain Masking 183
• Underwater Propagation 187
• References 190
• Problems 192

CHAPTER 6. PROPAGATION OF ACOUSTIC RADIATION 195

• What is Acoustic Radiation? 195
• The Speed of Sound 199
• Attenuation of Acoustic Radiation 204
• Reflection and Refraction of Acoustic Radiation 215
• Seismic Waves 228
• References 234
• Problems 236

CHAPTER 7. NUCLEAR RADIATION: ITS ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION 239

• The Nuclear Radiation Particle Zoo 239
• Nuclear Particle Reactions 247
• Nuclear Particle Reaction Rates 255
• Attenuation of Nuclear Radiation 257
• Radiation Exposure and Dose 266
• Radioactive Decay 268
• References 277
• Problems 279

CHAPTER 8. RADIOMETRY, PHOTOMETRY, & RADIOMETRIC ANALYSIS 281

• Radiometry 281
• Photometry 287
• Radiometric Analysis – Range Equations 290
• Blackbody Radiation 293
• Reflectance 296
• References 302
• Problems 303

CHAPTER 9. SENSOR FUNCTIONS 305

• Uses of Sensor Systems 305
• Six Primary Sensor Functions 307
• Incidental Sensor Functions 309
• Problems 310

CHAPTER 10. SEARCH 311

• Introduction to Search 311
• Circle Packing 313
• Area Search 319
• Volume Search 327
• Incorporating Effects of Non–Unity Detection Probability into Search 330
• References 332
• Problems 333

CHAPTER 11. DETECTION 335

• What is Detection? 335
• Basics of Detection Theory 336
• Impact of Signal Fluctuations on Detection 345
• Impact of Pulse Integration on Detection 350
• Example: Turbulence Effects on Laser Radar Detection 354
• System Level Concerns Involving Detection 360
• Clutter and Clutter Rejection 362
• References 363
• Problems 364

CHAPTER 12. ESTIMATION 367

• Characteristics of Measurements 367
• Sensor Resolution 369
• Parameter Estimation 376
• Discrimination 379
• Pattern Recognition 383
• References 386
• Problems 387

CHAPTER 13. MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 389

• Modulation and Demodulation 389
• Amplitude Modulation 394
• Frequency Modulation 398
• Phase Modulation 402
• Pulse Modulation 404
• Pulse Code Modulation 406
• References 413
• Problems 414

CHAPTER 14. IMAGING AND IMAGE–BASED PERCEPTION 415

• Generalized Images 415
• Resolution versus Coverage 417
• Image–Based Perception 422
• Johnson’s Criteria 426
• Applications of Johnson’s Criteria 429
• Information–Based Johnson’s Criteria 435
• Example: Atmospheric Turbulence Effects on Laser Radar Images 440
• References 446
• Problems 448

CHAPTER 15. TRACKING 451

• Tracking Systems 451
• Tracking Filters 457
• Fixed–Coefficient Filters 463
• Kalman Filters 471
• Comparison of Fixed–Coefficient and Kalman Filters 474
• Multisensor, Multiplatform Tracking 475
• Target Motion Analysis 479
• References 493
• Problems 494

APPENDIX A. UNITS, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, AND USEFUL
CONVERSION FACTORS 497

• Units 497
• Non–SI Systems of Units 500
• Natural Units 505
• Decibels and Logarithmic Units 506
• Units of Attenuation 510
• Dimensional Analysis 512
• Useful Physical Constants 515
• Selected Conversion Factors 518
• Useful Mathematical Relations 521
• References 533

APPENDIX B. FINITE DIFFERENCE AND FINITE ELEMENT TECHNIQUES 535

• Finite Difference Approximation of Derivatives 535
• Finite Difference Solution of Differential Equations 537
• Finite Element Computation of Definite Integrals 539
• References 540

APPENDIX C. PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS 541

• Combinatorial Analysis 541
• Probability 543
• Random Variables and Functions of Random Variables 546
• Statistics 554
• Variance and Covariance of Vector Random Functions 557
• References 559

UAVs can be remote controlled or fly autonomously based on pre–programmed flight plans or more complex dynamic automation systems.

UAVs are currently used in a number of military roles, including reconnaissance and attack.

Electronic Warfare (EW) is vital to all types of military operation. The ADF’s capacity to identify, characterise, locate, exploit, and suppress the electromagnetic emissions of an adversary is crucial to this objective as it allows for the establishment and mapping of the adversary’s electronic order of battle. In particular, integrating EW information (which often includes ID and intent) with surveillance and imagery data (which does not) provides a very much more complete situational awareness (SA) picture. Unfortunately, all too often EW is overlooked – until the shooting starts.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV’s) have a vital role to play in the prosecution of EW campaigns. Similarly, EW has a vital role to play in the protection of UAV’s. To exploit this synergistic relationship we need to make use of the latest miniaturised EW equipment. For example, a communications jammer or an Electronic Surveillance (ES) receiver can supplement or even replace a UAV’s main payload. An EW module such as a Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) can also be used to provide the UAV with some advance threat warning. Alternatively, the UAV and its payload can form some part of a higher–level total capability.

This paper discusses: a) Issues relevant to the physical and electromagnetic vulnerabilities of UAV’s, b) The potential for EW payloads to simultaneously enhance the capabilities and reduce the vulnerabilities of these UAV’s, c) The potential applications of smaller UAV’s in an EW campaign.

The paper also describes a DSTO program of work that is exploring the trade–offs between the larger, more sophisticated, platform–centric UAV/payload options and the smaller, cheaper, distributed, network centric options that are available.